Cryosurgery

Cryosurgery (cryotherapy) is the use of extreme cold in surgery to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue. The term comes from the Greek words cryo (κρύο) ("icy cold") and surgery (cheirourgiki – χειρουργική) meaning "hand work" or "handiwork". Cryosurgery has been historically used to treat a number of diseases and disorders, especially a variety of benign and malignant skin conditions^.

Warts, moles, skin tags, solar keratoses, Morton's neuroma and small skin cancers are candidates for cryosurgical treatment. Several internal disorders are also treated with cryosurgery, including liver cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, oral cancers, cervical disorders and, more commonly in the past, hemorrhoids. Soft tissue conditions such as plantar fasciitis (Jogger's heel) and fibroma(benign excrescence of connective tissue) can be treated with cryosurgery. Generally, all tumors that can be reached by the cryoprobes used during an operation are treatable. Although found to be effective, this method of treatment is only appropriate for use against localized disease, and solid tumors larger than 1 cm. Tiny, diffuse metastases that often coincide with cancers are usually not affected by cryotherapy.

Cryosurgery works by taking advantage of the destructive force of freezing temperatures on cells. When their temperature sinks beyond a certain level ice crystals begin forming inside the cells and, because of their lower density, eventually tear apart those cells. Further harm to malignant growth will result once the blood vessels supplying the affected tissue begin to freeze.

Liquid nitrogen

Cryogun used to spray liquid nitrogen

A common method of freezing lesions is using liquid nitrogen as the cooling solution. This −196 °C (−321 °F) cold liquid may be sprayed on the diseased tissue, circulated through a tube called a cryoprobe, or simply dabbed on with a cotton or foam swab.

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is also available as a spray and is used to treat a variety of benign spots. Less frequently, doctors use carbon dioxide "snow" formed into a cylinder or mixed with acetone to form a slush that is applied directly to the treated tissue.

Argon

Recent advances in technology have allowed for the use of argon gas to drive ice formation using a principle known as the Joule-Thomson effect. This gives physicians excellent control of the ice, and minimizing complications using ultra-thin 17 gauge cryoneedles.

Dimethyl ether – propane

A mixture of dimethyl ether and propane is used in some preparations such as Dr. Scholl's Freeze Away. The mixture is stored in an aerosol spray type container at room temperature and drops to −41 °C (−42 °F) when dispensed. The mixture is often dispensed into a straw with a cotton-tipped swab.

Pokhara: Sports & Activities

There are numerous outdoor activities for travelers to enjoy in Pokhara.  In fact, this is one of the main reasons why people travel to the area.  Visitors can enjoy hiking in the surrounding mountains, boating on the local lakes or more unique adventures such as whitewater rafting and paragliding.

• Boating – There are numerous lakes all throughout the area.  Travelers can rent boats and get out on the water.
• Whitewater Rafting & Kayaking - Pokhara is the starting point for many of Nepal's best river adventures. Raft on the mighty Kali Gandaki, Marsyangdi, Trisuli or Seti rivers, or learn a new skill and challenge yourself on a 4 day kayak school. For more infomation see the listing for the highest reputed whitewater adventure companies -  Rapidrunner Expeditions and Paddle Nepal. 
• Canyoning - Canyoning is one of the newest adventure activities to hit Nepal.  Imagine abseiling, jumping, sliding and swimming down multiple cascading waterfalls to crystal clear pools below!?  This is damn good fun!  One of the best Canyoning sites is located within a day trip of Pokhara.  Check out Paddle Nepal, GRG's or Adrenaline Rush.  Note - Canyoning can be combined with whitewater rafting or kayaking trips on nearby rivers, creating the ultimate multi-sport adventure itineraries.
• Caving – Many travelers visit the tourist caves but it is actually possible to bring proper equipment and do some deep caving.  Mahendra Gupha cave is the best place for doing so.Hardcore Nepal are one of the only companies to offer a caving expereince.
• Hiking  - The mountains of the area are known for hiking.
• Mule rides – Travelers can ride mules or horses through the smaller mountains of the area.
• Paragliding – Travelers who know how to enjoy this sport can do so if they bring their own equipment and head over to Sarangkot.  Visitors who aren’t skilled should make plans with local experts.  Ask around to get advice on who to see for enjoying this activity.
• Parahawking – Take paragliding one step further and fly with trained birds of prey.
• Swimming – Phewa Lake is attractive for swimming (a free of cost), and the water quality is generally very good (there is loads of fish and plant life in the lake as evidence to this). For the best swimming spots it is a good idea to hire a boat or hike around the lake away from the Lakeside shore as many locals use the lake

Dry Fish

Fresh fish rapidly deteriorates unless some way can be found to preserve it. Drying is a method of food preservation that works by removing water from the food, which inhibits the growth of microorganisms. Open air drying using sun and wind has been practiced since ancient times to preserve food.^[1] Water is usually removed by evaporation (air drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying) but, in the case of freeze-drying, food is first frozen and then the water is removed by sublimation. Bacteria, yeasts and molds need the water in the food to grow, and drying effectively prevents them from surviving in the food.

Fish are preserved through such traditional methods as drying, smoking and salting.^[2] The oldest traditional way of preserving fish was to let the wind and sun dry it. Drying food is the world's oldest known preservation method, and dried fish has a storage life of several years. The method is cheap and effective in suitable climates; the work can be done by the fisherman and family, and the resulting product is easily transported to market.

Stockfish

Stockfish is unsalted fish, especially cod, dried by cold air and wind on wooden racks on the foreshore. The drying racks are known as fish flakes. Cod is the most common fish used in stockfish production, though other whitefish, such as pollock, haddock, ling and tusk, are also used.

Clipfish

Over the centuries, several variants of dried fish have evolved. Stockfish, dried as fresh fish and not salted, is often confused with clipfish, where the fish is salted before drying. After 2–3 weeks in salt the fish has saltmatured, and is transformed from wet salted fish to Clipfish through a drying process. The salted fish was earlier dried on rocks (clips) on the foreshore. The production method of Clipfish (or Bacalhau in Portuguese) was developed by the Portuguese who first mined salt near the brackish water of Aveiro, and brought it to Newfoundland where cod was available in massive quantities. (q.v.). Salting was not economically feasible until the 17th century, when cheap salt from southern Europe became available to the maritime nations of northern Europe.

Stockfish is cured in a process called fermentation where cold adapted bacteria matures the fish, similar to the maturing process of cheese. Clipfish is processed in a chemically curing process called saltmaturing, similar to the maturing processes of other saltmatured products like the Parma ham.

Other

• Bacalhau is the Portuguese word for codfish and in a culinary context refers to dried and salted codfish. Fresh (unsalted) cod is referred to as bacalhau fresco (fresh cod). Bacalhau dishes are common in Portugal and Galicia, in the northwest of Spain, and to a lesser extent in former Portuguese colonies like Angola, Macau, and Brazil. There are said to be over 1000 recipes in Portugal alone and it can be considered the iconic ingredient of Portuguese cuisine (but curiously the only fish that is not consumed fresh in this fish-loving nation). It is often cooked on social occasions and is the Portuguese traditional Christmas dinner in some parts of Portugal.
• Baccalà (in Venetian Language: bacalà) is sun-dried stockfish, rather than salt cod. In other parts of Italy dishes made with salt cod are given the same name. Baccalà dishes made with stockfish are soaked for several days to soften the fish. Salt cod, which is already soft, is also soaked to remove excess salt.
• Balyk is the Russian term for the salted and dried soft parts of fish of large valuable species, such as sturgeon or salmon. Over time, the term has come to apply also to smoked fish of these species.
• Boknafisk is a variant of stockfish and is unsalted fish partially dried by sun and wind on drying flakes or on a wall. The most common fish used for boknafisk is cod, but other types of fish can also be used. If herring is used, the dish is called boknasild.
• Daing (also known as Bulad or Tuyô) refers to sun-dried fish in the Philippines. Almost any kind of fish is used, but the most popular variant uses rabbitfish (locally known asdanggit). Cuttlefish and squid may also dried this way^[3] The amount of drying can vary. In the labtingaw variant, the drying period only lasts a few hours, allowing the fish to retain some moisture and texture.^[4] In the lamayo variant, the fish isn't dried at all, but simply marinated in vinegar, garlic and spices.^[5]
• Dried squid
• Fesikh is a traditional Egyptian fish dish consisting of fermented salted and dried gray mullet, of the mugil family, a saltwater fish that lives in both the Mediterranean and the Red Seas.^[ The traditional process of preparing it is to dry the fish in the sun before preserving it in salt.
• Gwamegi is a Korean half-dried Pacific herring or Pacific saury made during winter. It is mostly eaten in the region of North Gyeongsang Province such as Pohang, Uljin, andYeongdeok where a large amount of the fish are harvested. Guryongpo Harbor in Pohang is the most famous. Fresh herring or saury is frozen at -10 degrees Celsius and is placed outdoors in December to repeat freezing at night and defreezing in the day. The process continues until the water content of the fish drops to approximately 40%.^[10]
• Hákarl is an Icelandic food consisting of a sleeper shark that has been fermented and dried for four or five months.
• Ikan masin is a dried fish which is salty. It is a Malay dish and it is often accompanied with rice.
• Jwipo is a kind of Korean fish jerky made by pressing, drying and seasoning filefish.
• Katsuobushi is the Japanese name for dried, fermented, and smoked skipjack tuna, sometimes referred to as bonito).
• A kipper is a whole herring, a small, oily fish,^[11] that has been split from tail to head, gutted, salted or pickled, and cold smoked.
• Kusaya is a Japanese style salted, dried and fermented fish. It has a pungent smell, similar to the fermented Swedish herring called surströmming.
• Maldive fish is cured tuna traditionally produced in the Maldives. It is a staple of the Maldivian cuisine, as well as Sri Lankan cuisine.
• Mojama (Spain) consists of filleted salt-cured tuna. The word mojama comes from the Arabic musama (dry), but its origins are Phoenician, specifically from Gdr (Gadir, Cádiztoday), the first Phoenician settlement in the Western Mediterranean Sea. The Phoenicians had learned to dry tuna in sea salt so they could trade it. Mojama is made by curing tuna in salt for two days. The salt is then removed, the tuna is washed and then laid out to dry in the sun and the breeze (according to the traditional method) for fifteen to twenty days.
• Niboshi is the Japanese name for dried infant sardines that are both eaten as a snack and used to make soup stock. They are also eaten in Korea.
• Obambo is dried tilapia, prepared by cutting the fish open and drying it in the sun for several days.^[12] It is popular among the Luo and Luhya tribes, who live along the shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya. Traditionally, fishing was strictly forbidden during the rainy seasons, and people relied on obambo caught earlier and preserved.^[13]
• Karuvadu is dried fish, prepared by sun drying it for several days. This procedure is traditionally seen in coast of Tamil Nadu in India. Various species of fish are sundried and storage timeline of these dried fishes varies from several months to years based on species.
• Tatami Iwashi is a Japanese processed food product made from baby sardines laid out and dried while entwined in a single layer to form a large mat-like sheet. Typically, this is done by drying them in the sun on a bamboo frame, a process that is evocative of the manufacture of traditional Japanese paper.

Water activity

The water activity, a_w, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a_w. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using solar drying. In more recent times, freeze-drying, water binding humectants, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.^[14]

History

Salt cod has been produced for at least 500 years, since the time of the European discoveries of the New World. Before refrigeration, there was a need to preserve the codfish;drying and salting are ancient techniques to preserve nutrients and the process makes the codfish tastier.

The Portuguese tried to use this method of drying and salting on several varieties of fish from their waters, but the ideal fish came from much further north. With the "discovery" of Newfoundland in 1497, long after the Basque whalers arrived in Channel-Port aux Basques, they started fishing its cod-rich Grand Banks. Thus, bacalhau became a staple of thePortuguese cuisine, nicknamed Fiel amigo (faithful friend). From the 18th century, the town of Kristiansund in Norway became an important place of purchasing bacalhau orklippfisk (literally "cliff fish", since the fish was dried on stone cliffs by the sea to begin with.) Since the method was introduced by the Dutchman Jappe Ippes around 1690, the town had produced klippfisk and when the Spanish merchants arrived, it became a big industry. The bacalhau or bacalao dish is sometimes said to originate from Kristiansund, where it was introduced by the Spanish and Portuguese fish buyers and became very popular. Bacalao was common food in northwest Norway to this day, as it was cheap to make. In more recent years, it has become less of an everyday staple and mostly eaten on special occasions.

This dish was also popular in Portugal and other Roman Catholic countries, because of the many days (Fridays, Lent, and other festivals) on which the Church forbade the eating of meat. Bacalhau dishes were eaten instead.

Beautiful Tourist Place Sylhet Jaflong

Jaflong is a hill station and popular tourist destination in the Division of Sylhet, Bangladesh. It is located in Gowainghat Upazila of Sylhet District and situated at the border between Bangladesh and the Indian state of Meghalaya, overshadowed by subtropical mountains and rainforests. Jaflong is famous for its stone collections and is home of the Khasi tribe.

In early 2005, Laskar Muqsudur Rahman, Deputy Conservator of Forests, Sylhet Forest Division, observed that Jaflong that he heard in his boyhood as the 'lungs' of Greater Sylhet was at stake due to on going encroachments and establishment of unauthorized stone crushing mills. He took initiatives to recover the land and establish a recreation-cum-botanical park named as 'Jaflong Green Park'. The first foundation stone for the thematic Green Park at Jaflong was laid by Laskar Muqsudur Rahman, Deputy Conservator of Forests in 2005 with the cooperation of local forest staffs led by Forest Ranger Mohammad Ali. Nonetheless, at the inception it was a challenging task due to local conflicts and procedural constraints. The forestation program in Jaflong Green Park has been started under supervision of the joint forces, Jaflong Foundation and Forest Department. They have jointly taken up the forestation program with about 100 hectares of grabbed land. Under the forestation program, various types of trees, including hybrid Akash-moni, are being planted in the park to maintain ecological balance.

Mughal Architecture

Mughal architecture is an architectural style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever changing extent of their empire in Medieval India. It was an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkic and Indian architecture. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation.^[1] Examples of the style can be found in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Humayun's Tomb (for his father), Agra Fort, the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.

Akbari Sarai

Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the most famous Mughal monument, the Taj Mahal, as well as many other fine examples of the style.

Tomb Of Jahangir

While Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb commissioned buildings such as the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.

Agra Fort

Main article: Agra fort

Agra fort is a UNESCO world heritage site in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra fort was built by Akbar The Great during 1565 AD to 1574 AD. The architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort are Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars.The Jahangiri Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls and rooms.^[2]

Great Humayun's Tomb

Main article: Humayun's tomb

14 years after the death of Humayun, his widow Hamida Banu Begum built the Humayun’s tomb in Delhi. The mausoleum of Humayun is located in the centre of a square surrounded by typical Mughal garden in Fatehpur Sikri. It is said to be first mature example of Mughal architecture.^[3]

Buland Darwaza

Buland Darwaza, also known as the Gate of Magnificence, was built by Akbar in 1576 A.D. at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victory over Gujarat and the Deccan. It is 40 metres high and 50 metres from the ground. The total height of the Structure is about 54 metres from the ground level. The Buland Darwaza is approached by 1,000,000 steps. The Buland Darwaza is made of red and buff sandstone, decorated by carving and inlaying of white and black marble. An inscription on the central face of the Buland Darwaza is based on Christian belief (advice given by Jesus Christ), and hence shows Akbar's broad mindedness in matters of religion.^[4][5]

Haramsara

The Haramsara, the royal seraglio in Fatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. The opening to the Haramsara is from the Khwabgah side separated by a row of cloiters. According to Abul Fazl, in Ain-i-Akbari, the inside of Harem was guarded by senior and active women, outside the enclosure the eunuchs were placed, and at a proper distance there were faithful Rajput guards.^[6]

Jodha Bai's Palace

This is the largest palace in the Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to the minor haramsara (where the less important harem ladies and maids would have resided) quarters. The main entrance is double storied, projecting out of the facade to create a kind of porch leading into a recessed entrance with a balcony. Inside there is a quadrangle surrounded by rooms. the columns of rooms are ornamented with a variety of Hindu sculptural motifs. The glazed tiles on the roofs from Multan have an eye catching shade of turquoise.^[7] The mosque was built in honour of Jodha Bai, mother of Jahangir and wife of Akbar. Her Mughal name was Mariyam Zamani Begum and this being the reason that the mosque was built in her honor in Lahore’s walled city. Jahangir built his mother Mariyam Zamani Begum’s mosque and is just 1 km away from the tomb of Akbar near Agra at a place called Sikandra.
Buland Darwaza dominates the landscape. Historian `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni writes that it was the highest gateway in Hindustan at that time until today.

Inscription

A chronogram is inscribed on the central archway composed by Ashraf Khan, one of Akbar's principal secretaries that reads,
'In the reign of King of the world Akbar, To whom is due the order in the country. The Sheikh -ul-Islam adorned the mosque, Which for its elegance deserves as much reverence as the Ka'ba. The year of the completion of this magnificent edifice, Is found in the words,"duplicate of the Masjidi'l-Haram"' ^[8]
Sheikh Salim Chishti Tomb
The Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581, along with the imperial complex at Situated near Zenana Rauza and facing south towards Buland Darwaza, within the quadrangle of the Jama Masjid which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft.[1] It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, and lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri.[2] The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son, who was named Prince Salim after him and later succeeded Akbar to the throne of the Mughal Empire, as Jahangir.

Jahangir

Jahangir features architecture vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian style, covered with enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered in pietra dura mosaic. Jahangir also built the Shalimar Gardens and Nishat Bagh, and their accompanying pavilions on the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar in Sheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death he went on to build his mausoleum in Lahore.

Shah Jahan

Rather than building huge monuments like his predecessors to demonstrate their power, Shah Jahan built elegant monuments. The force and originality of this previous building style gave way under Shah Jahan to a delicate elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected during his reign at Agra and Delhi. Some examples include the Taj Mahal at Agra, the tomb of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Lahore Fort and the Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing buildings of his era, and their position and architecture have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts. Shah Jahan also built sections of the Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion, which are all enclosed in the fort. He also built a mosque named after himself in Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque. Shah Jahan also built the Red Fort in his new capital at Shah Jahanabad, now Delhi. The red sandstone Red Fort is noted for its special buildings-Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas. Another mosque was built during his tenure in Lahore called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor.

Taj Mahal

Main article: Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal, a World Heritage Site known as the "teardrop on the cheek of time" according to writer Rabindranath Tagore, was built between 1630–48 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Its construction took 22 years and required 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants. Built entirely of white marble at a cost of approximately 32 million rupees^{[citation needed]}, it is one of the New7Wonders of the World. The building's longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire complex except for the sarcophagus of Shah Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the Mecca-facing mosque placed to the west of the main structure. Shah Jahan used "pietra dura", a method of decoration on a large scale-inlaid work of jewels.

Shalimar Gardens

Main article: Shalimar Gardens, Lahore

The Shalimar Gardens (1641–1642) built on the orders of Shah Jahan in Lahore, Pakistan, is also on the UNESCO world heritage list.

Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture

An 1858 illustration of Old Delhi in India, the capital city of the Mughal Empire

Further information: Bibi Ka Maqbara

In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Mughal architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him (Alamgir). Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of Fida'i Koka. This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone and is closely modeled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad. The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration.
Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganj was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter Zinat-al-Nissa. Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Ara who died in 1671. The tomb of Roshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay. Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present-day Lahore. It was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Another construction of the Mughal era is Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.

Mughal Gardens

Main article: Mughal gardens

Mughal gardens are gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens at Taj Mahal, Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as Pinjore Garden in Haryana.

Mughal Bridges

Shahi Bridge, Jaunpur was constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar.

Tribal and ethnic groups in Bangladesh

Tribal and ethnic groups in Bangladesh

Khasi people

The Khasi are an indigenous or tribal people, the majority of whom live in the State of Meghalaya in north east India, with small populations in neighbouring Assam, and in parts of Bangladesh. They call themselves Ki Hynñiew trep, which means "the seven huts" in the Khasi language. Their language Khasi is the northernmost Austroasiatic language. This language was essentially oral until the arrival of European missionaries. Particularly significant in this regard was a Welsh missionary, Thomas Jones, who transcribed the Khasi language into Roman Script. The Khasi people form the majority of the population of the eastern part of Meghalaya. A substantial minority of the Khasi people follow their tribal religion; called variously, Ka Niam Khasi and Ka Niam Tre in the Jaintia region and within that indigenous religious belief the rooster is sacrificed as a substitute for man, it being thought that the rooster "bears the sins of the man and by its sacrifice, man will obtain redemption”[2](compare Kapparot). Other religions practiced include Presbyterian, Anglican, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and very few are Muslims. The Khasi people who reside in the hilly areas of Sylhet, Bangladesh are of the War sub-tribe. The main crops produced by the Khasi people living in the War areas, including Bangladesh, are betel leaf, areca nut and oranges. The War-Khasi people designed and built the living root bridges of the Cherrapunjee region.[3] In several States of India, Khasis have been granted the status of Scheduled tribe. The Khasis are a matrilineal society.

The Jaintia

Jaintia, an ethnic group living in Sylhet region and also known as Synteng, have a very rich tradition and political history. Once they lived in the northern area of Sylhet. But after the Partition of Bengal in 1947, majority of them migrated to the Jaintia Hills in Assam where most of them are now settled. A small section of them are now living in Jaintapur Upazila in Sylhet. The Jaintias in Bangladesh constitute an ethic group numbering about twenty thousand. According to the Anthropologists, Jaintia is one of the ancient original groups who migrated to the North Eastern region of the sub-continent and settled down there. There is a view holding that the Jaintia is a branch of the Khasi community. The Khasi is a branch of the Mon-khem race while Jaintia belongs to the Mongoloids. The similarity is consequent upon their co-existence for a long time and that similarity is confined in physical features only. No documentary evidences are available regarding the naming of the community. Some are of opinion that they are named after their principal goddess Joyanti. Devi Joyanti is an incarnation of Hindu goddess Durga. Jaintias also introduce themselves as Pnar. Jaintias have their own language, but no alphabets. The Jaintias in Bangladesh get education in the schools through the medium of Bangla. The literacy rate of the Jaintia is 80%, the highest among all tribes living in greater Sylhet region. At present many of them are serving in different government and private organisations. A number of children from Jaintia families are getting education at Shillong in Meghalaya. Though they use their mother tongue in conversation with their tribal people they speak in Bangla to communicate with others. The dress of the male members of both Jaintia and Khasi tribes is similar. However, the male members of Jaintia tribe living in Bangladesh wear same kind of dresses with the mainstream Bengali males. But the women wear the traditional Jaintia dresses. They cover the upper portion of the body with a piece of colourful decorated cloth. But the Jaintia ladies wear another piece of cloth as a modesty scarf knotted on the shoulder like Khasi women. Most of the Jaintia women are now accustomed to wear sari-blouses, although they prefer traditional attires at home. They are also fond of ornaments made of gold and silver. Agriculture is the main occupation of the Jaintias. They cultivate betel leaves and various nuts, which are used in local trading. The Jaintia society is matriarchal. Mothers dominate their respective families and children adopt the title of mother’s clan. The women exclusively inherit the family property. The Jaintia society is divided into a number of tribes, such as Sarty, Nayang, Kayang, Lanong, yangyoung, rymbai, dkhar etc. In spite of the existence of tribal system in the Jaintia society, caste discrimination is totally absent there. Intra tribal marriage is prohibited in Jaintia society. A social panchayet system settles disputes through arbitration. The arbitration is conducted under the chief panchayet and supported by the elders in the society. The decision of the panchayet is final in respect of any social problems. The chief of the panchayet is elected by the community.

Rice is the staple food of the Jaintias and they take it with various vegetables, fish and meat. Pork is their favourite dish. They also like mutton, chicken, milk and milk products. They are also used to drink tea, and they entertain guests with betel leaf and nuts. Locally brewed wine, known as kiad is popular among them. They like all the seasonal vegetables, especially bulbous plants and esculent roots. They consider dried fish as a delicacy. They cook their food like the Bengalis.

Hoktoi is the religious festival of the Jaintia. They celebrate the festival for two days. The event is celebrated by the Jaintia to pray for the peace of the soul who died and for the welfare of the next generation. They cook different kinds of foods and serve fruits to the guest. It has been said that, ‘better the dance, better the crop’ by the Jaintia people which has made them skilled in their own dimension of dancing. Such festivals are really part our culture which has made it more diversified.

Though pantheist in belief the Janitias are much influenced by Hinduism. Their main deity is goddess Jayanti, an incarnation of Hindu goddess Durga. They worship their traditional gods and goddesses along with the Hindu gods and goddesses. But it is an exception that they don’t have any specific temple or place of worship. They believe that their deities exist in nature and they offer their prayer in open air. They also believe in the eternal existence of a creator with whom the human being had a direct link at an initial stage. But when they started to be driven by selfish motives, they could not see God with their eyes as He disappeared. Thus the human beings became busy with their families and worldly affairs so much that they started forgetting God gradually as the relationship weakens. So God advised them to follow a few moral sayings to live in the world in a modest way. The directives of God were: (a) earn honestly (Kamai ya ka haq), (b) know the people, understand God (Thipbru Thipblai) and (c) know both the lineages of your parents (Thipkur-Thipkhar). Jaintias also believe that God had sent some gods and goddesses on earth to control the indisciplined human being. They keep them in their control by imposing illness and diseases. Jaintias also worship those gods and goddesses in order to mitigate their rage. They have their own conception of sins and piety, heaven and hell, crime and punishment. However, some of them have embraced Christianity.

The Chakmas

The Chakmas are the largest tribe of Bangladesh. The Chakmas are of mixed origin but reflect more Bengali influence than any other tribe.

The Marmas

Marmas are the second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh and they are of Burmese (Myanmar) ancestry. The Marmas regarded Burma (Myanmar) as the centre of their cultural life. Historically it is believed that the Arakanese emperor has invaded the south-eastern region of the current Bangladesh. Since then the region was ruled under the Burmese emperor and Marma ethnic groups were established from that period. Their cultural traits are connected to their ancestral heritage, including dress (which is call thumbui—the lower part, and angi—the upper part), food (mostly spicy, sour, and hot), writing (Burmese script), traditional songs and musical instruments (for example, kappya, jjea, and kharra). They speak Marma, and the majority are Theravada Buddhist. They have many festivals during the year, but Sangrai is regarded as the biggest celebration among them. It is a tradition to welcome the new year according to the Buddhist lunar calendar. This festival held for three days, and the popular ritual during the second and third day of the festival is to splash water on each other. They believe that the water takes away all the sorrow and pure up our soul and body, so one must to greet others (even strangers) by splashing water on them. But the culture of marma is unique. It has also their own language, tradition, culture etc.

Santals

The Santals are known as one of the oldest and largest indigenous communities in the northwestern belt of Bangladesh. They have been living in the pristine natural surroundings of the area for thousands of years. They might be described as children of nature who are nurtured and reared by its bounty. Santals are largely seen in the northern districts of Dinajpur, Naogaon, Thakurgaon, Panchagarh, etc. The Santals are of ebony colour with little growth by way of beard, are generally of stocky build and capable of undertaking hard labour. Physically the Santals are not prepossessing. The face is round and softly contoured; the cheekbones moderately prominent; eyes full and straight, nose broad and depressed, mouth large and lips full, hair straight, black and coarse. They are long-headed and of medium height. By nature, they are very peace-loving, honest, industrious and trustworthy people. They always respect their social customs and are satisfied with what they earn and what they eat. They have profound respect for the land they live in, the soil they till and the community they live with. They are not acquainted with hypocrisy, double-dealing, deception, fraudulent practices and tricks and artifices used to obtain things illegally. Their bravery, courage and righteousness are well known. They have actively participated in the Tebhaga movement led by Ila Mitra in 1950, the Santal revolt, Birsa Munda Uprising, Kol revolt, Jitu Samur Rebellion, Pandu Raja Insurgency, Swadeshi Movement and the War of Liberation in 1971. Santal women, especially young girls, are by nature very beauty-conscious. Santal women wear ornaments on their hands, feet, nose, ears and neck and also wear peculiarly shaped ornaments on their ankles. They fix flowers on their heads and hair-buns, and make themselves graceful with simple ornaments. Like their simple, plain and carefree way of life, their dress is also very simple. Santal dresses are called panchi, panchatat and matha. The Santal women wear coarse homespun cotton sarees of bright colours that barely reach their knees, while the upper end is flung over the shoulders. Santal men and women wear tattoos^[5] on their bodies. Most of their houses are usually neat and clean even though built of mud. Their homestead often includes a garden. The peculiarity of the houses is that they have small and low doors and almost no window. There is practically no furniture except a wooden bedstead and bamboo machang on which the people of the comparatively well-to-do class spread their beds. The Nabanna ceremony is undoubtedly of great importance to the rural people, and is observed during the harvest time when delicious preparations from newly harvested food grains are made and friends and relatives are entertained. Santals have their own language, culture and social patterns, which are clearly distinct from those of other tribes. They speak Bangla fluently and have adopted many Bangla words for their own language. Most Santals are Christians now but they still observe their old tribal rites. Although the Santals used to lead a prosperous and peaceful life in the past, their economic and social conditions are now very backward. Agriculture is their main source of livelihood. Principal food items of Santals are rice, fish and vegetables. They also eat crabs, pork, chicken, beef and the meat of squirrels. Jute spinach (nalita) is one of their favourite food items. Eggs of ducks, chickens, birds and turtles are delicacies in their menu. Liquor distilled from putrefied rice called hadia or (pachai) is their favourite drink. Santal women are skilled in making different kinds of cakes. Most of the Santals are animists. The main weapon used for hunting and self-protection is the bow and arrow made of locally available materials. They are fond of flowers and music. Hunting and collecting food from the forest were their primitive economic activity. Santals are divided into twelve clans and all these clans are fond of festivities. They are very proficient in music and dance. Like Bengalis, they also have 'thirteen festivals in twelve months' and many other festive occasions around the year. Their year starts with the month of Falgun (roughly, 15 February-15 March). Almost each month or season has a festival celebrated with dances, songs and music. In the spring, Santals celebrate holi when they drench each other with colours. To express gratitude to the god of crops is also a part of this festival. It turns into a carnival with dances, songs, music and food and drinks. Probably its greatest attraction is the choral dance of Santal girls. Another important ceremony of Santals is called Baha or the festival of blossoms. The purpose of this festival at the beginning of spring is to welcome and offer greetings to the freshly blossoming flowers. It is also characterized by dancing, singing and music. The Santals cremate their dead bodies. But nowadays, many of them bury the dead. When an inhabitant of a village dies, the village headman's duty is to present himself at the place of the departed and arrange for the last rites with due respect.

Garos

The Garos are matrilineal ethnic community of Bangladesh, who inahbit Mymenshingh, Tangail, Jamalpur, Sherpur, Sylhet and Gazipur. Like other ethnic communities they used to worship super natural powers like sun, moon, storms, fire, mountains, water or rain etc. Joom cultivation, a way of agriculture, was a major activity for their living. However, in modern time their livelihoods no longer depended on traditional Joom cultivation; rather, they have adopted modern system of agricultural work. Their economy depends on agriculture and private sector employment, mostly NGOs.

Manipuri

The Manipuris are one of the major ethnic communities of Bangladesh. They migrated to Bangladesh during the reign of Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (1764-1789) and the process was accelerated by the Manipuri-Burma war. After the war with Burma, Manipur was ruled by the Burmese invaders for about seven years. During that period, King Chourajit Singh accompanied by a large following of Manipuri subjects moved to areas - now in Bangladesh. At present they live in different places of Sylhet Division, like Kamalganj, Sreemongal, Kulaura and Baralekha thanas of Moulvi Bazar district; Chunarughat thana of Habiganj district and Chhatak thana of Sunamganj district. According to the 1991 population census, there were about 25,000 Manipuris in Bangladesh. As a result of their changing geographical locations and various kinds of religious and political interaction, Manipuri society became the meeting point of different ethnic groups and cultures. The mother-tongue of the Manipuris belongs to the Kuki-chin group of the Tibeto-Burman sub-family of the Mongolian family of languages. Manipuri literature is very old. It has a rich and variegated history and traditions. Interestingly, a characteristic of the old Manipuri script is that each and every letter of the alphabet has been named after a part of the human body. The shape of a letter is also based on the body part it is named after. Some books on Manipuri subjects have been published in Bengali. Manipuri men and women work together in the field. Men clear the jungles and till the soil, while the women sow seeds and do the transplanting. They celebrate seed planting and crop harvesting in their own colourful way. Manipuri culture has a rich and colourful tradition where dance and music play a vital role. The most vibrant branch of Manipuri culture is dance. Rasa dance is the finest product of their culture. Manipuri dance is characterized by gentleness, tenderness and devotion. The dress they wear during a dance is really gorgeous and beautiful. Most of the festivals of the Manipuris are accompanied by the consumption of alcoholic beverages. A very popular festival of the Manipuris is a type of Gopi dance celebrating the romantic liaison of Radha and Krishna. In the spring, Manipuris celebrate Holi, when they drench each other with colour. Most religious rites and festivals of the Manipuris are based on the seasons of the year. They also celebrate the rice harvest through a singing contest. Manipuris put up colourful wedding pandals, and the bride and groom go round the pandal to be greeted with paddy and durva grass. Manipuris cannot marry within their own clans. A Manipuri bride comes to visit her parents for the first time on the fifth day after marriage, providing an occasion for a lavish feast. According to tribal custom, all members of the clan are invited to this ceremony and they come with presents of rice, meat, fowls, pigs, money and alcohol. Manipuris have their own rituals regarding disposal of the dead body. They keep the dying person outside the house on a banana leaf, while Kirtans are chanted. Dead bodies are washed with the head pointed northward. They bury bodies of adolescents and cremate bodies of older persons. After disposing of the body, the pallbearers take a bath and dry their hands by holding them above a fire before entering their house.

The Tripuri

The Tripuri are one of the indigenous peoples living both in the plains and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. During the partition of the Indian subcontinent, the princely state of Tripura were merged neither into India nor Pakistan. However, Tripura Kingdom were merged in 1949 with India through a merger agreement. The peoples of Tripura, both in Bangladesh and the Indian State of Tripura, shared common culture, history, tradition, and way of life. Their languages are called Kokborok, of which there are more than one million speakers.

The Tanchangya

Main article: Tanchangya people

The Tanchangya (তঞ্চংগ্যা) people are one of 13 indigenous ethnic communities living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT).

Tanchangya peoples have been living in CHT since its prehistoric age. Nowadays Tanchangya peoples live in Rangamati, Bandarban, Roisyabili & Sadhikyabili (Chittagong district), Ukhia and Teknaf (Cox's Bazaar district) areas of Bangladesh. Tanchangyas also live in North-east Indian states (Assam, Tripura and Mizoram) and Rakhine State of the Myanmar. Most of Tanchangyas live in reserve forest of CHT but on April 10, 2000 the government declared a new law entitled "The Forest (Amendment) Act; 2000." According to this act, cultivation and preparation of cultivation on reserve forest land are illegal, and as a result the survival of these groups in the area becomes more difficult.

Due to lack of research, there is also confusion about the numbers of Tanchangyas. According to census of 2001 there are 31,164 Tanchangya in CHT (source: solidarity2002, Bangladesh Adivasi Forum).

The Mros (Mrus or Moorangs).

The Mros are considered the original inhabitants of the Chittagong Hills. They lived on valleys and often fortified their villages. They had no written language of their own, but some could read the Burmese and Bangla scripts. Most of them claimed to be Buddhists, but their religious practices were largely animistic.

Other tribes

There are some other tribal groups in other parts of the country. Santals are inhabitants of Rajshahi and Dinajpur. Khasis, Garos, and Khajons in Mymensingh and Sylhet regions.

Different tribal groups differed in their social organization, marriage customs, foods, birth and death and other social customs from the people of the rest of the country. They have somehow managed to resist centuries of colonization and in the process have retained their own customs, traditions and life.

Rangamati

Rangamati, a small town located amongst the green hills, lakes and rivers of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. This is what makes it a prime Bangladesh hill destination. It is known as the Lake City of Bangladesh as this place is located on the bank of the beautiful Kaptai Lake. It is the administrative headquarter of the Rangamati Hill District, the largest district of Bangladesh and located some 77 kilometres away from Chittagong. For long time Rangamati has been a prime Bangladesh tourist destination for its location, scenic beauty, colourful tribal people, tribal homespun textiles and ivory jewellery.

The rich natural resources, diverse flora and fauna makes Rangamati a Bangladesh Eco-Tourism destination. The road leading to Rangamati circles and winds through hilly terrains covered with lush green forests and creates a memorable experience for years to come. A stay here provides a glimpse into the lifestyle of various tribes living there. The ethnic tribes of Rangamati are the Chakma, Marma, Tonchongya, Tripura, Murong, Bome, Khumi, Kheyang, Chak, Pankhoa, and Lusai. The mix of different races, cultures, religions and customs creates an interesting community at Rangamati. It is said that without visiting Rangamati a tourist will miss a colourful slice of Bangladesh.

Visit Rangamati during October to February as the temperature remains cool and usually there is no rainfall, however, the beauty of Rangamati unleashes during the monsoon as the forest becomes greener, bursts with life and the rivers and waterfalls becomes replenished.

Places to visit at Rangamati

Kaptai Lake

Kaptai lake, beautiful blue watery lake was made by man. The size of Lake is approximately 11000 sq km. You will enjoy the natural beauty of this lake as well as boating on the lake. It is a huge lake and it has some tiny islands. Each island has different name such as “Peda Ting-Ting”, “Tuk-Tuk Echo Village”, “Chang-Pang” etc. “Peda Ting-Ting” is a tiny island and here you will find cottages to stay and enjoy moonlight night with fantastic lake surroundings. “Tuk-Tuk” is an echo park with varities of trees and plants. It is a great place for boating and cruising.

Hanging Bridge is 335 feet long bridge across a portion of the Kaptai lake is an icon of Rangamati. Actually Rangamati is famous for this bridge.It’s really a very beautiful bridge. Every year thousands of people come here to visit this bridge and lake.

Location :Kaptai,Rangamati,Chittagong

How to Go

There are many bus service available from Dhaka to Rangamati. After reaching Rangamati you can hire an auto-rickshaw to visit the Kaptai lake and Hanging bridge.

Where to stay

There are lots of hotel and boarding are available in Rangamati to stay and have food. The rate range of hotel is reasonable over there.

Shuvolong Falls

Shuvolong a place in Borokol sub district, situated about 25kilometers (11kilometers – as the crow flies) away from Rangamati. There are few waterfalls in Shuvolong zone with the largest one falling from as high as 300 feet. In the past more than a few years, this place has twisted into a tourist journey’s end due to stunning waterfalls and the neighbouring market. Shuvolong is simply easy to get to by rapidity boat or motor boats from Rangamati.

Bangladesh is a pleasing country in the world. There are lots of tourist spot in Bangladesh. Rangamati district is one of them. Rangamati is in the Chittagong division. Shuvolong Waterfalls is a good-looking waterfall in Rangamati. It is the attractive place of Rangamati. The only obtainable path to influence at the waterfall is through water, through the lake. People visit there by boat. It is a well-known place with the tourists for the waterfall, high hills and the natural neighbouring it offers. This waterfall is just in advance the Shubholong Bazaar. Means from the waterfall, it will take from one place to another 5 minutes to reach at bazaar. So that Shuvolong is with no trouble easy to get to by speed boat or motor boats from Rangamati.

Tribal Museum

Located in Rangamati, the Tribal Cultural Museum in the Hill Tracts of Bangladesh offers fascinating insight into the history and cultural traditions, as well as socio-economic aspects of the different tribes in the area. Visitors can view displays of tribal dress, ornaments, musical instruments, coins and handicrafts at the museum. Paintings depicting the many facets of tribal life are also on display, as well as a collection of statues made from various metals and wood.The Chittagong Hill Tracts in south-eastern Bangladesh is divided into the Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban districts and is home to a number of the country’s tribal groups. Collectively referred to as the Jumma, these tribal groups include the Marma, Tripura, Chakma, Tenchungya, Chak, Pankho, Mru, Bawm, Pankho, Murung, Lushai, Khumi and Khyang tribes. 

 

Shajek and Marissa Vally

Sajek is a union at Baghaichari Upazila in Rangamati districts. It is one of the big union in Rangamati districts. Basically it is name of a river which separates Bangladesh from India. The river flows into the Karnafuli River in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Sajek Valley is situated in the North angle of Rangamati, near the Mizoram border boundary area. The valley is 18000 ft high form sea lavel. Many small rivers flow through the hills among them Kachalon and Machalong are famous. It is one of the biggest union in Bangladesh.

The main ethnic minorities on the valley are Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Pankua, Lushai and Sagma. Before traveling there, be alert about malaria. There is some body lotion or cream to prevent the mosquito. The place is known as hill queen for its natural beauty and roof of Rangamati. Marishsha is a name of a place near Sajek Valley. Most of the houses are made by bamboo. There is another place near Sajek, it is Kanlak, and it is famous for orange orchard.

Most attractions of the spot are sun set, rain, morning, evening, and night and aborigine people. Tourist can buy aborigine people product from indigenous Haat. Roads are like big snake spirals mountains. Most of the people are Buddhist and people are Christian here.

A new road has been built up to the Ruilui Para by the guidance of Bangladesh army. On the way traveler need to take permission from the army camp. Bangladesh army is very helpful and cooperative. Now mobile network is available here.

The valley is in Rangamati but tourist can reach there from Khagrachhari too. The route is Khagrachhori – Dighinala Bazaar – Bagaihat Bazaar – Machalong  Haat – then Sajek. It is 106 km from Khagrachhari. Dighinala to Sajek is 25 km. Main transportation is Chander Gari. It costs tk.5000-tk.6000/- from Khagrachhari. It is like a four wheel jeep. Some time visitor can take some tea berak on the way at Haat. From Dighinala traveler can hire motor bike. It may cost tk 1000-tk1500/- up down. The region is extremely very backward.

Visitor can also go to Sajek from Rangamati by engine vessel.  It takes 5-6 hours. Baghaichari is the landing station. Costing is within tk 200/-. And Baghaichari to Sajek by Chander Gari. Per person it take Tk 300/- Normally it is better to book reserve for return journey.

 Hanging Bridge



This 335feet long bridge across a portion of the Kaptai lake is an icon of Rangamati.
How To Go

It is just 5 kilometer away from Rangamati town. So visitor can hire private jeep or CNG auto rickshaw to go there.

 Kaptai National Park

This forest reserve is located in the Karnafuly and Kaptai range. According to the government statistics some 50,000 people visits the national park every year as it provides some walking trails among the lush green forest. The animal species of Kaptai National park are deer, elephants, monkeys, fishing cats and birds. The Kaptai Forest Rest house, Kaptai Mukh Forest Rest House and several picnic spots are located here.

 Rajban Bihar Pagoda
An internationally known Buddhist Temple, where the spiritualist principal monk of Rajban Vihara, Shrimath Sadhana Nanda Mohasthabir(Ban Vante) lives.

Peda Ting Ting

A small island on the Kaptai Lake, few kilometres away from Rangamati. It is mostly known for its serenity. There are a few tourist accommodation facilities here and a tiny restaurant run by the locals. It offers foods ranging from traditional to indigenous delicacies.

Chakma Royal Palace

This is the palace of the present Chakma King. However, it is open to public for a visit.

DC Bungalow Area

The District Commissioner’s Bungalow is located adjacent to the lake. There is a small light house and a shelter accessible to the public. This spot provides a nice view of the lake.

Others

The local market is also a tourist attraction as it offers handicrafts, textiles and ornaments made by the tribal people.

Places to Stay

Circuit House
Address: Amanat bagh,Vedvedi Area,Rangamati.
Tel:0351-62304(office);0352-62308(Residence);0351-62240(VIP-1);0351-62081(VIP-2)
E-mail:dcrangamati@moestab.gov.bd